Dopaminergic Receptors as Neuroimmune Mediators in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

The dopaminergic system plays an essential role in maintaining homeostasis between the central nervous system (CNS) and the immune system. Previous studies have associated imbalances in the dopaminergic system to the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). Here, we examined the protein levels of dopaminergic receptors (D1R and D2R) in different phases of the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model. We also investigated if the treatment with pramipexole (PPX)-a dopamine D2/D3 receptor-preferring agonist-would be able to prevent EAE-induced motor and mood dysfunction, as well as its underlying mechanisms of action. We report that D2R immunocontent is upregulated in the spinal cord of EAE mice 14 days post-induction. Moreover, D1R and D2R immunocontents in lymph nodes and the oxidative damage in the spinal cord and striatum of EAE animals were significantly increased during the chronic phase. Also, during the pre-symptomatic phase, axonal damage in the spinal cord of EAE mice could already be found. Surprisingly, therapeutic treatment with PPX failed to inhibit the progression of EAE. Of note, PPX treatment inhibited EAE-induced depressive-like while failed to inhibit anhedonic-like behaviors. We observed that PPX treatment downregulated IL-1ß levels and increased BNDF content in the spinal cord after EAE induction. Herein, we show that a D2/D3 receptor-preferred agonist mitigated EAE-induced depressive-like behavior, which could serve as a new possibility for further clinical trials on treating depressive symptoms in MS patients. Thus, we infer that D2R participates in the crosstalk between CNS and immune system during autoimmune and neuroinflammatory response induced by EAE, mainly in the acute and chronic phase of the disease.

The antinociceptive effects of the tetracyclic triterpene euphol in inflammatory and neuropathic pain models: The potential role of PKCε.

Evidences suggest protein kinase C epsilon (PKCε) activation is involved in both inflammatory and neuropathic pains. We have previously shown that tetracyclic triterpene euphol produces antinociception in different models of persistent pain, an action associated with its anti-inflammatory properties. Among these properties are the cannabinoid system activation and different PKC isozymes modulation. Herein, we sought to explore the potential role of PKCε modulation on euphol antinociceptive effect, in inflammatory and neuropathic pain models, in rodents. Also, we investigated further mechanisms associated with euphol effects. Oral treatment with euphol (30 mg/kg) prevented the putative effect of PGE2-induced acute and persistent mechanical hypersensitivity in mice and rats, respectively. In the PGE2-induced acute mechanical hypersensitivity euphol promoted an inhibitory effect similar to a PKCε inhibitor peptide. Likewise, in rats it prevented the mechanical hypersensitivity induced by a PKCε activator. Conversely, euphol effectiveness was not observed in a cAMP/PKA-induced mechanical hypersensitivity in mice. Single (1h prior) or repeated (twice daily during 3 or 13 days) treatments with euphol ameliorated painful peripheral neuropathy induced by paclitaxel and also the mechanical hypersensitivity induced by B16F10 melanoma cells injection, in mice. Additionally, in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain models, euphol consistently prevented PKCε up-regulation, as well as, inhibited the up-regulation of PKCε-activated intracellular pathways; namely nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) and cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2). The present results suggest the antinociceptive effect on persistent pain caused by euphol is likely dependent on the inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators modulated by PKCε.

Screening antimycobacterial activity of Baccharis dracunculifolia, Centella asiatica, Lantana camara and Pterodon emarginatus / Atividade anti-micobacteriana de Baccharis dracunculifolia, Centella asiatica, Lantana camara e Pterodon emarginatus

ABSTRACT The permanent investigation of new antimycobacterial drugs is necessary for the eradication programs of tuberculosis and other mycobacterium-related diseases. The aim of the present study is to search for new sources of antimycobacterial drugs using plant materials. In this study, 11 plant materials (extracts, essential oils and some fractions) obtained from 4 species of medicinal plants traditionally used as general therapeutics for different illnesses and specifically as treatment of tuberculosis, were evaluated using the microplate resazurin assay against 2 species of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex and 3 nontuberculous mycobacteria. The results showed the hexane extract and the essential oil from fruits of Pterodonemarginatus (Vogel) as potential sources of antimycobacterial drugs against 4 species of tested mycobacteria. The hexane fraction of methanol extract from leaves of Centella asiatica also presented significant mycobacterial growth inhibition, but against M. chelonae only. In conclusion, it was possible to contribute to the antimycobacterial investigations by presenting three new samples of plants with significant antimicrobial activity against four Mycobacteriumspp and suggest future studies about the antimycobacterial properties of fruits from P. emarginatus.

RESUMO A investigação permanente de novas drogas antimicobacterianas é necessária no programa de erradicação da tuberculose e de outras doenças relacionadas com micobactérias. O objetivo deste estudo foi buscar novas fontes de drogas antimicobacterianas usando material vegetal. Neste estudo, 11 materiais de base vegetal (extratos, óleos essenciais e algumas frações) foram avaliados contra 5 espécies de micobactérias. Estes materiais foram obtidos a partir de 4 espécies de plantas medicinais tradicionalmente utilizadas como terapêutica geral para diferentes doenças e, especificamente, no tratamento de tuberculose (Baccharis dracunculifolia, Centella asiatica, Lantana camara, Pterodon emarginatus). Os ensaios foram realizados em microplacas com resazurina contra duas espécies do Complexo Mycobacteriumtuberculosis e 3 espécies de micobactérias não tuberculosas. Os resultados mostraram o extrato hexânico e o óleo essencial de frutos de P.emarginatus como potenciais fontes para drogas antimicobacterianas contra quatro espécies de micobactérias testadas. A fração hexânica do extrato metanólico das folhas de C. asiatica também apresentou significativa inibição do crescimento de micobactérias apenas contra M.chelonae. Em conclusão, foi possível contribuir para as investigações de antimicobacterianos por apresentar três novas amostras de plantas com atividade antimicrobiana significativa contra quatro Mycobacterium spp e sugerir a realização de estudos futuros sobre as propriedades antimicobacterianas de frutos de P. emarginatus.

ß-Caryophyllene protects the C6 glioma cells against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity through the Nrf2 pathway.

ß-Caryophyllene (BCP), a natural bicyclic sesquiterpene present in several essential oils, displays analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. Astrocytes are a major class of glial cells that regulate extracellular ion balance, repair and scarring processes in the CNS following neuroinflammatory conditions and traumatic injuries. This study sought to determine the protective effect of BCP against glutamate (Glu)-induced cytotoxicity in the C6 glioma cell line on neurochemical parameters as well as their biochemical mechanism. Glu increases intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and induces mitochondrial dysfunction as well as decreasing antioxidant defenses such as glutathione (GSH) and glutathione peroxidase activity. BCP prevented C6 cells from Glu-induced cytotoxicity by modulating the cellular antioxidant response, mainly by inhibiting ROS production and reestablishing the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm). Moreover, BCP per se induced the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) which was reflected by improvement in the cellular GSH antioxidant system. Taken together, our results suggest that cytoprotective effects of BCP were mediated by the amelioration of cellular antioxidant responses via Nrf2 activation, which is, in part, dependent on cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R) activation. This functional nonpsychoactive CB2R ligand, could represent an important molecule for protection of glial cells against oxidative stress induced by glutamate.

Exacerbation of DSS-induced colitis in mice lacking kinin B(1) receptors through compensatory up-regulation of kinin B(2) receptors: the role of tight junctions and intestinal homeostasis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Kinins are pro-inflammatory peptides that are released during tissue injury, including that caused by inflammatory bowel disease. Herein, we assessed the role and underlying mechanisms through which the absence of kinin B(1) receptors exacerbates the development of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: B(1) and B(2) receptor antagonists and B(1) receptor knockout mice (B1(-/-) ) were used to assess the involvement of B(1) and B(2) receptor signalling in a DSS-colitis. B(1) receptor, B(2) receptor, occludin and claudin-4 expression, cytokine levels and cell permeability were evaluated in colon from wild-type (WT) and B1(-/-) mice. KEY RESULTS: DSS-induced colitis was significantly exacerbated in B1(-/-) compared with WT mice. IL-1ß, IFN-γ, keratinocyte-derived chemokine and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 were markedly increased in the colon from DSS-treated B1(-/-) compared with DSS-treated WT mice. Treatment of WT mice with a selective B(1) receptor antagonist, DALBK or SSR240612, had no effect on DSS-induced colitis. Of note, B(2) receptor mRNA expression was significantly up-regulated in colonic tissue from the B1(-/-) mice after DSS administration. Moreover, treatment with a selective B(2) receptor antagonist prevented the exacerbation of colitis in B1(-/-) mice following DSS administration. The water- or DSS-treated B1(-/-) mice showed a decrease in occludin gene expression, which was partially prevented by the B(2) receptor antagonist. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: A loss of B(1) receptors markedly exacerbates the severity of DSS-induced colitis in mice. The increased susceptibility of B1(-/-) may be associated with compensatory overexpression of B(2) receptors, which, in turn, modulates tight junction expression.

The precursor of resolvin D series and aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 display anti-hyperalgesic properties in adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Resolution of inflammation is mediated by endogenous molecules with anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving activities and they have generated new possibilities for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Here, we have investigated the possible anti-hyperalgesic effects of two lipids, aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 (AT-RvD1) and its precursor, 17(R)-hydroxy-4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,15E,17R,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (17(R)HDoHE). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The anti-hyperalgesic effects of both lipid mediators were evaluated, using mechanical and thermal stimuli, at different time-points in adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. Cytokine levels were measured, and immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR for pro-inflammatory mediators were also performed. KEY RESULTS: The precursor of resolvin D series, 17(R)HDoHE, given systemically, inhibited the development and the maintenance of mechanical hyperalgesia in acute inflammation. Such effects were likely to be associated with modulation of both NF-κB and COX-2 in dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord. 17(R)HDoHE was also effective against sub-chronic pain. Unexpectedly, repeated treatment with 17(R)HDoHE did not modify paw and joint oedema in the sub-chronic model, while joint stiffness was prevented. Notably, AT-RvD1 exhibited marked anti-hyperalgesic effects in acute inflammation when given systemically. The efficacy of long-term treatment with either 17(R)HDoHE or AT-RvD1 was partly related to decreased production of TNF-α and IL-1ß in rat hind paw. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our findings provide fresh evidence for the anti-hyperalgesic properties of 17(R)HDoHE and its pro-resolution metabolite AT-RvD1. Such lipid mediators might be useful for treating pain associated with acute or chronic inflammation. LINKED ARTICLE This article is commented on by Xu and Ji, pp. 274-277 of this issue. To view this commentary visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01348.x.

Inhibitor of PI3Kγ ameliorates TNBS-induced colitis in mice by affecting the functional activity of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase-γ (PI3Kγ) is implicated in many pathophysiological conditions, and recent evidence has suggested its involvement in colitis. In the present study, we investigated the effects of AS605240, a relatively selective PI3Kγ inhibitor, in experimental colitis and its underlying mechanisms. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Acute colitis was induced in mice by treatment with trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS), and the effect of AS605240 on colonic injury was assessed. Pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines were measured by immunohistochemistry, elisa, real time-polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry. KEY RESULTS: Oral administration of AS605240 significantly attenuated TNBS-induced acute colitis and diminished the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and vascular endothelial growth factor. The colonic levels and expression of IL-1ß, CXCL-1/KC, MIP-2 and TNF-α were also reduced following therapeutic treatment with AS605240. Moreover, AS605240 reduced MIP-2 levels in a culture of neutrophils stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. The mechanisms underlying these actions of AS605240 are related to nuclear factor-κ (NF-κB) inhibition. Importantly, the PI3Kγ inhibitor also up-regulated IL-10, CD25 and FoxP3 expression. In addition, a significant increase in CD25 and FoxP3 expression was found in isolated lamina propria CD4+ T cells of AS605240-treated mice. The effect of AS605240 on Treg induction was further confirmed by showing that concomitant in vivo blockade of IL-10R significantly attenuated its therapeutic activity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: These results suggest that AS605240 protects mice against TNBS-induced colitis by inhibiting multiple inflammatory components through the NF-κB pathway while simultaneously inducing an increase in the functional activity of CD4+CD25+ Treg. Thus, AS605240 may offer a promising new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases.

Controle estatístico de processo aplicado ao monitoramento de envase da tintura de iodo / Statistical process control applied to used in monitoring the iodine tincture fill phase

A aplicação do controle estatístico para monitorar o desempenho da etapa de envase de formas farmacêuticas líquidas consiste em obter informações e estabelecer estratégias para a validação do processo, assim como possibilitar o gerenciamento deste a partir da percepção do comportamento das variáveis críticas do produto durante a produção. Esta etapa do processo possui como variável crítica o volume de envase. Variações neste parâmetro fora dos limites de qualidade pré-estabelecidos pela legislação refletem ineficiências durante o processo podendo ocasionar a reprovação do produto. Para demonstrar de forma objetiva o grau de segurança requerida para este tipo de processo foram utilizadas ferramentas do controle estatístico de processo (CEP) para estudar e validar o desempenho da etapa de envase da tintura de iodo fabricada pela indústria farmacêutica Lapon Química e Natural Ltda. (Limoeiro - PE, Brasil), bem como verificar a estabilidade estatística e capacidade do processo. As atividades de melhoria, através da identificação e eliminação das causas especiais de variação do processo, permitiram a redução de sua variabilidade, assegurando uma melhoria contínua da qualidade nos resultados da produção.

Statistical control is used to monitor the performance of the fill phase in the manufacture of liquid pharmaceutical forms, to obtain information and establish criteria for process validation, as well as to enable control of the process, by observing the behavior of the critical variables during production. The critical variable at this stage of the process is the filling volume. Variations in this parameter outside the established legal quality limits reflect inefficiency in the process that may result in product rejection. To demonstrate objectively the degree of security required in this type of process, statistical process control (SPC) tools were used to study and validate the performance of the fill phase in production of iodine tincture by the Pharmaceutical manufacturer Lapon Química e Natural Ltda. (Limoeiro - PE, Brazil), as well as to check the statistical stability and capacity of the process. Optimization of the process, by identifying and removing the specific causes of variation, led to a reduction in its variability, ensuring a continual improvement in the quality of production.